Objectivism’s Entity Ontology

Ontology is defined as the study of existence as such, of being qua being. This branch of inquiry includes claims about what kinds of things exist. The philosophy of objectivism asserts that the primary existents are entities, describing the nature of these objects in some detail, and therefore introduces certain limited ontological commitments, ostensibly remaining neutral regarding the ultimate constituent substance(s) of which they are composed. Accordingly, objectivism forwards an entity ontology. Here is some supporting evidence:

To exist is to be something, as distinguished from the nothing of non-existence, it is to be an entity of a specific nature made of specific attributes. [GS, FNI, 125]. 

The first concepts man forms are concepts of entities — since entities are the only primary existents. [ITOE, 18]. 

On the basis of the foregoing, the claim that objectivism posits an entity-ontology can be readily established. 

Entities are not the only existents according to objectivism. The foundation of objectivist metaphysics also affirms the existence of attributes, motions, and relationships, all of which properly belong to entities, and, as one among these dependent existents, objectivism affirms the attribute of consciousness. These derivatives, however, are not considered primary on an ontological level, although consciousness is considered an epistemological axiom. 

I flag these points to illustrate objectivism’s underlying rejection of idealism or panpsychism on a priori logical grounds. When objectivists refrain from naming the substance(s) which compose entities, they do so while ruling out the possibility of anything “mind-like”, essentially affirming some quasi-physicalism*. Rand maintains that attributes “…cannot exist by themselves, they are merely the characteristics of entities…” [ITOE, 18]. Consciousness, “the faculty of perceiving that which exists” [ITOE, 37], is only an emergent attribute of conscious entities, and cannot therefore be ontologically primary or necessary. Here “perceiving” is to be taken in a wider sense than the more particular usage elsewhere in Rand’s corpus, meaning simply “to be aware of” rather than something like “a group of sensations automatically retained and integrated by the brain of a living organism…” [VOS, 19]. Objectivism also maintains that an entity is identical to its attributes, however, attributes can only be isolated through selective focus, and in reality are simply aspects of unitary objects. On this account, Rand holds that consciousness is not an integral ingredient of existence. It is conceivable in the objectivist universe for there to be in the future, and to have been in the past, no consciousness in the universe. 

This material should suffice to illustrate objectivism’s commitment to an entity ontology. In future treatments, I will have recourse to this point due to its downstream implications for two different interpretations of the form-object distinction, paying particular attention to that forward by Peikoff in Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand, which entails an untenable dichotomy between objects of sense-perception, and the entities which cause their appearance. 

Notes:

*Objectivism claims that consciousness, though emergent from ostensibly physical bodies, is itself immaterial - however, this should not be understood as an alternative substance. Ayn Rand also explicitly suggest that we cannot know that the ultimate constituents of the physical universe are even “extended in space”, and we should not preemptively judge their nature according to our current understanding of macro-level phenomena. For more information on this point, see the Q&A appendix in ITOE.

Kame House Hedonism

Dragon Ball is an iconic Japanese manga and anime series created by Akira Toriyama. While the later Z sequel attracts more attention, I am personally partial towards the original show due to its lighter tone and casual philosophical underpinnings. There is much to recommend Dragon Ball primarily as an enjoyable viewing experience, but here we will focus on a small portion of its valuable moral content. The audience follows students Goku and Krillin as they strive to improve their martial arts skills under the guidance of the reclusive Turtle Hermit, Master Roshi. During their training period on Kame island, Roshi imparts some wise words to the young boys, ripe for New Cyrenaic appropriation:

Work hard, study well, and eat and sleep plenty! That is the Turtle Hermit way! 

Childishly simple advice, yet vital. Hedonists who take this brief credo seriously stand to improve the basic pillars of their lives. Let’s break it down:

Work hard (to procure pleasure): We must apply effort in order to achieve a pleasant life. For modern hedonists, this will primarily apply to one’s occupation, which provides the means to facilitate desirable goods, services, and experiences. Readers may come across quotes indicating that Aristippus did not trouble himself to procure what was not present, but it would be a misunderstanding to take these anecdotes as suggestive of sloth. Properly understood, we find exhortations to remain receptive to pleasurable opportunities available in current situations, rather than missing out by pining for absent allures. The anecdotes collected by Diogenes Laërtius clearly indicate that Aristippus valued education, cultivating skills of character, and forming beneficial relationships - all of which require long-term planning and purposeful action. Working hard does not entail aimlessly expending energy, however: it means focusing your attention on the areas that truly matter and striving towards greater happiness. In the context of Dragon Ball, hard work refers primarily to martial arts exercises. Interestingly enough, perhaps due to the Socratic influence, Cyrenaics also valued physical fitness, and according to Diogenes Laërtius they held that “bodily training contributes to the acquisition of virtue”. It is clear that nothing of value is achieved by terminal inaction, though as we will see later, indolence has its proper place. As for understanding what our goals ought to be, and how best to achieve them, we will cover that in the next stage. 

Study well (to develop skills and attitude): Paideia, or education, was an important element of Aristippus’ livelihood, and he infamously charged fees in exchange for imparting his wisdom to the youth. This education consisted primarily of Aristippus’ own philosophical program, teaching students how to act with appropriate self-possession, maintain their peace of mind, and navigate social situations. All of this involves developing sophrosūnē, which is a Greek ideal combining excellence of character with soundness of mind, perfectly exemplified by the cardinal Aristippean virtue of temperance. Ordinarily, this term suggests abstinence or deprivation. For Cyrenaics, however, exercising temperance means possessing the correct understanding of our ultimate end, while ensuring that our actions and attitudes align with it. Aristippus teaches that pleasure is the goal of life. In this connection, the virtue of temperance guards against our two biggest obstacles to enjoyment: 1. Attachment: overlooking present delights due to an unhealthy obsession with a particular desired source. 2. Craving: slavishly seeking after desires beyond those at hand. The state of mind characterized by attachment and craving is considered an illness/mental perversion. To avoid this, we disdain excess and focus our attention on the present moment. In this way, we prevent our imaginative projections from interfering with real pleasures, and maintain a receptive demeanor which increases our capacity for appreciation. By studying Cyrenaic philosophy, we can improve our philosophical understanding, enhance our character, and achieve an advantageous attitude.

Eat and sleep plenty (for health and well-being):  Metabolic nourishment and physiological regeneration are integral elements of maintaining healthy homeostasis. The Cyrenaics were in an important sense physicalist who considered our affections - pain and pleasure - to be the result of bodily motion. The upshot of such a position is that our foundational basis for pleasurable living is maintaining health and well-being. Aside from exercise, which we have already covered, diet and rest are the key requirements for proper biological and psychological functioning. In short, if you want to live a pleasant life, start by eating well and getting an appropriate amount of sleep!

Sources:

Lampe, K. (2017). The Birth of Hedonism - The Cyrenaic Philosophers and Pleasure As a Way of Life. Princeton University Press.

Redmond, F. (2012). Cyreniacs Handbook. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.

Orthodox Cyrenaic Epistemology and Axiology

Orthodox Cyrenaic thought was largely expanded upon by Aristippus the Younger, the so-called Metrodidact, who was taught philosophy by his mother Arete. The doxographical material reveals certain basic epistemological and ethical principles elucidated by the early Cyrenaics, which I have collected and summarized below. It is important to recognize that the Cyrenaic theory of knowledge supports the practical hedonistic program, and this is its primary purpose. 

Epistemology:

• The affections alone are apprehensible. The affections are the criteria of truth. The affections are appearances. All appearances are therefore true and apprehensible; they reveal nothing more than themselves.
• Affections themselves are intelligible, but not the causes from which they arise. 
• We have consciousness only of our own physical excitations; those which are course and painful, or those which are smooth and pleasant.
• Consider both natural philosophy and dialectic to be useless. Anyone who has properly mastered the theory of good and evil will also be capable of speaking well, will be free from superstition, and will have escaped the fear of death. Logic, however, has its uses.
• In pursuing philosophy we should concentrate on moral questions, for such are within our capacity and are useful, while those relating to [ultimate] nature are beyond our grasp and would be of no use even if they were open to investigation. 

Axiology:

• Living pleasurably is the end.
• No pleasure is different [in value] from any other pleasure, nor is one more pleasant than another, although these admit to degrees of purity in enjoyment, based on our state of mind.
• All living creatures find pleasure agreeable and are repelled by pain.
• From earliest childhood, we are instinctively drawn to pleasure, and after having attained it we seek for nothing more, whilst there is nothing we so strive to avoid as its opposite, pain.
• It is possible, from perversity, that some people may not pursue pleasure. 
• Pleasure is not always derived from mere sensation, but also involves cognitive judgement. 
• Bodily pleasure is superior to mental pleasure. 
• Although pleasure is desirable in itself, the things that give rise to certain pleasures are often irksome and quite the opposite of pleasurable, so striving to accumulate these pleasures also becomes disagreeable. 
• Even wise persons only live pleasantly for the most part.
• Practical wisdom is important, though it is not desirable for its own sake, but only for what it enables.
• A friend is good for the advantages he brings us.
• Bodily training can contribute to the acquisition of virtue.
• Wealth is productive of pleasure, but not desirable in itself. 
• Nothing is intrinsically just, honourable or base, but held to be so only by convention. A good person will do nothing improper because of the consequences and ill-repute that follow.

Sources:

Diogenes & Hard, R. (2012). Sayings and anecdotes: with other popular moralists. Oxford University Press.

Redmond, F. (2012). Cyreniacs Handbook. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.

Hedonic Mantra

Epicurus long ago recognized the importance of memorable summarizations in aiding the practical application of philosophical material, and further, he extended an explanation:

Even those who have made considerable progress in understanding the main principles must keep in mind an outline of the essentials of the whole system.  For we frequently have need of the general view, but less often do we need the details. And it is necessary to focus on the main principles, and commit them firmly to memory, if we are to gain a comprehension of the most essential truths.  This is because an accurate knowledge of details can be obtained only if the general principles in the various departments are thoroughly grasped.  Even for those who are well educated, the most essential feature of all accurate knowledge is the capacity to make a rapid use of that knowledge, and this can only be done if the details are summed up in elementary principles and formulas. For it is not possible to grasp the complete course through the whole system unless one can embrace in one's own mind short formulas that set forth the principles that control the details. (Epicurus, Letter to Herodotus). 

Taking this advice, I have attempted to provide such an outline here and here for Cyrenaicism. Indeed, the surviving primary Epicurean material consists precisely of the man’s own philosophical summarizations, quite fortunately preserved by Diogenes Laërtius. One further reduction comes in the form of Philodemus’ Tetrapharmakos, or “The Fourfold Cure”, which is a diminutive credo encapsulating the core elements of Epicurean ethical principles, derived from the first four Principal Doctrines. While there are some issues with the standard formulation, nonetheless, there is much to recommend a mantra of this sort, and I’d like to attempt something similar for Cyrenaicism, in order that Aristippeans may have something memorable to keep in mind during daily activity. In that spirit, I offer the following:

Hedonic Mantra:

Peace and pleasure, guiding lights;

Present moments, pure delights.

With confidence, adapt and thrive.

Temper indulgence, master drives.

Cyrenaic Principles

Based on a careful reading of Aristippean anecdotes, in addition to adjacent orthodox material, I’ve synthesized a number of general principles, collected according to similarity of theme. Due to the interconnected nature of all philosophical systems, it’s appropriate that many points would fit under multiple headings, but there is a useful hierarchy here. Short summaries like this provide a quick reference for practical application. 

Hedonism:

• To live pleasantly/pleasurably is the ultimate end of man.
• Pleasure is the telos, pain is the greatest evil, and as proof of this we have the example of young children, animals, and the natural feelings of men. 
• Pleasure is the smooth/moderate motion of the soul/body, resulting in sensation.
• Bend world to self, not self to world.
• A happy life holds heroic value over an ordinary existence.
• Opulence and extravagance are not to be shunned, if available.
• The man who masters pleasure is not the one who abstains, but the one who enjoys without allowing himself to be carried away.
• Education improves receptivity and appreciation.

Peace of Mind:

• Maintain calm temper, regardless of the situation.
• Aim higher, while content with what you have.
• A man ought not covet more than he possesses, else he risks the degree and purity of his joy.
• Greed for excess is an illness, and we ought not become attached to any particular source of pleasure.
• Accustom oneself to living on little so as to do nothing shameful for the purpose of gaining wealth.
• Express amiability in relationships, avoid holding grudges, and aim for reconciliation.
• We should not allow our words to be guided by anger, but ought use our words to put a check on our anger.
• Eschew the troubles of politics.

Adaptability and Confidence:

• Extract enjoyment from all circumstances, controlling adversity and prosperity alike.
• Our philosophy imparts the ability to feel at ease in any society. We become skilled at adapting ourselves to place, time, and person. We can play our role in the manner that befits each circumstance. 
• All states, styles, and circumstances suit us.
• Wit, rhetorical skills, and suavity are valuable.
• Fortune and chance are negligible.

Presentism:

• The pleasures of the present moment are paramount.
• Derive pleasure from what is present, without troublesome toil for what is not.
• We should not be anxious about things past or future. Such an attitude is a sign of confidence and gives proof of a cheerful frame of mind.
• Telescope your attention first on the day, and in that day, on the very moment in which we are acting and thinking, as a spiritual exercise to increase pleasurable appreciation. 
• Only the present truly belongs to us. 

Virtue:

• Skills of character are the most valuable possessions; those habits which conduce to pleasure are virtuous.
• Virtue is praiseworthy only because it is productive of pleasure.
• True wisdom consists of transforming disagreeable into agreeable sensations.
• Temperance means to control desires, not to be controlled by them. It is not abstinence from pleasure, but mastery over it that is best, in order to indulge without being worsted.
• Moderation prevents against corruption.
• Disdain excess.
• Freedom is the high road that leads most surely to happiness, being neither master nor slave.
• Gratitude and rejoicing in what one has is superior to mourning what is lost or not achieved.

Sources:

Diogenes & Hard, R. (2012). Sayings and anecdotes: with other popular moralists. Oxford University Press.

Redmond, F. (2012). Cyreniacs Handbook. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.